A confession: the history of early maritime Southeast Asia is not my field. I just stumbled into it starting about five years ago.
Yes, before that time, I had at times looked at information in the Chinese dynastic histories about various places in the region, but I had never looked closely at it.
Over the past five years, however, that is what I have been doing, and every new topic that I turn to leads to yet another shocking revelation about how far the extant scholarship is from the primary sources, and by “extant scholarship,” I am referring to scholarship that relies on information in the Chinese sources, as that is what I have been looking at.
Ok, so the latest mind-blowing shock for me is Zhenla 真臘.
Let me begin with a minor rant: Scholars! Stop calling it “Chenla”!! That’s the Wade-Giles transcription and that system for transcribing Chinese has been abandoned for DECADES by now!!! We’re nearing half a century at this point.
Zhenla, according to the extant scholarship, is a Cambodian kingdom, and it was first mentioned in the History of the Sui (Suishu 隋書), a work that was completed in 636.
The History of the Sui has a sizeable entry on Zhenla, and in reading it, it is SO OBVIOUS that it describes a South Asian ruling class.
They eat a dairy product like curd, for god’s sake!!
I will write about this later, but for now, here is a translation of the account of Zhenla in the History of the Sui.
真臘國，在林邑西南，本扶南之屬國也。去日南郡舟行六十日，而南接車渠國，西有朱 江國。
The kingdom of Zhenla is located to the southwest of Linyi 林邑 and was originally a vassal state of Funan 扶南. From Rinan Commandery (日南郡), it takes sixty days by boat to reach. To its south it borders the Chequ 車渠 kingdom, and to the west lies the Zhujiang 朱江 kingdom.
其王姓剎利氏，名質多斯那。自其祖漸已強盛，至質多斯那，遂兼扶南而有之。死，子伊奢那先代立。居伊奢那城，郭下二萬餘家。
The king is surnamed Kṣatriya (Chali 剎利) and his given name is Citrasena (Zhiduosina 質多斯那). From the time of his ancestors, [the kingdom] gradually grew stronger, and by the time of Chitrasena, it annexed and took possession of Funan. Upon his death, his son Īśāna (Yishena 伊奢那) was the first to succeed him. He resides in Īśāna Citadel (Yishena cheng 伊奢那城), which has over 20,000 households in its suburbs.
城中有一大堂，是王聽政之所。總大城三十，城有數千家，各有部帥，官名與林邑同。
Inside the city is a grand hall where the king holds court. In total, the kingdom has thirty major cities. Each city houses several thousand families and has its own regional commander. The official titles are the same as those used in Linyi.
其王三日一聽朝，坐五香七寶牀，上施寶帳。其帳以文木為竿，象牙、金鈿為壁，狀如小屋，懸金光焰，有同於赤土。前有金香鑪，二人侍側。
The king holds court once every three days, seated on a throne of five fragrant woods and seven precious gems, over which is suspended a canopy of treasures. The canopy is supported by poles made of fragrant wood, with walls of ivory and gold inlay, shaped like a small house. Hanging from it are golden flaming torches that are similar to those in Chitu 赤土. In front of him stands a golden incense burner, with two attendants at his side.
王着朝霞古貝，瞞絡腰腹，下垂至脛，頭戴金寶花冠，被真珠瓔珞，足履革屣，耳懸金璫。常服白疊，以象牙為屩。若露髮，則不加瓔珞。
The king wears a robe of morning glow colored gubei 古貝 cloth, with a belt that wraps around his waist and hangs down to his shins. On his head, he wears a crown of gold and jeweled flowers. He is adorned with pearl necklaces and pendants, wears leather shoes on his feet, and gold earrings hang from his ears. His usual dress is made of fine white die 疊, and he wears sandals made of ivory. If he wears his hair uncovered, he does not put on any of the jewelry.
臣人服製，大抵相類。有五大臣，一曰孤落支，二曰高相憑，三曰婆何多陵， 四曰舍摩陵，五曰髯多婁，及諸小臣。
The dress of his ministers and subjects is, for the most part, similar. There are five chief ministers: the first is called Guluozhi, the second Gaoxiangping, the third Pohaduoling, the fourth Shemoling, and the fifth Randalu, along with various lesser officials.
朝於王者，輒以階下三稽首。王喚上階，則跪，以兩手抱膊，遶王環坐。議政事訖，跪伏而去。階庭門閣，侍衞有千餘人，被甲持仗。
When they attend the king’s court, they perform a triple prostration at the foot of the steps. If the king summons them to ascend, they kneel and cross their arms over their chests, then sit in a circle around the king. Once deliberations on state affairs conclude, they kneel and prostrate before departing. In the courtyard and at the gates and pavilions, there are over a thousand guards in armor, holding weapons.
其國與參半、朱江二國和親，數與林邑、陀桓二國戰爭。其人行止皆持甲仗，若有征伐，因而用之。
The kingdom maintains peaceful relations with the kingdoms of Canpan 參半 and Zhuxiang 朱江, but frequently engages in warfare with Linyi 林邑 and Tuohuan 陀桓. The people, whether walking or standing, always carry weapons, which they readily use during military expeditions.
其俗非王正妻子，不得為嗣。王初立之日，所有兄弟並刑殘之，或去一指，或劓其鼻，別處供給，不得仕進。
According to custom, only a son of the king’s principal wife may succeed to the throne. When a new king ascends the throne, all his brothers are mutilated—some have a finger cut off, others have their noses cut off—and are then provided for in separate places, forbidden from holding office or power.
人形小而色黑。婦人亦有白者。悉拳髮垂耳，性氣捷勁。居處器物頗類赤土。
The people are small in stature and dark in complexion. Some women, however, are light-skinned. They all have tightly curled hair that hangs down to their ears, and they are naturally quick and energetic. Their dwellings and utensils are somewhat similar to those in Chitu.
以右手為淨，左手為穢。每旦澡洗，以楊枝淨齒，讀誦經呪。又澡洒乃食，食罷還用楊枝淨齒，又讀經呪。
They regard the right hand as clean and the left as unclean. Every morning, they wash themselves, clean their teeth with twigs from the yang 楊 tree, and recite scriptures and spells. They purify themselves again before eating, and after meals, they again clean their teeth with twigs and recite more scriptures and spells.
飲食多蘇酪、沙糖、秔粟、米餅。欲食之時，先取雜肉羹與餅相和，手擩而食。
Their diet mainly consists of curd [sulao 蘇酪], sugar, glutinous millet, and rice cakes. Before eating, they mix assorted meat stews with cakes and knead them together by hand before consuming them.
娶妻者，唯送衣一具，擇日遣媒人迎婦。男女二家各八日不出，晝夜燃燈不息。男婚禮畢，即與父母分財別居。
When a man takes a wife, he only sends a single set of clothing as a gift. A date is selected, and a matchmaker is sent to escort the bride. For eight days, both the bride’s and groom’s households do not go out, and they keep lamps burning day and night without interruption. After the wedding rites, the husband separates from his parents, receiving a share of the family property to establish an independent household.
父母死，小兒未婚者，以餘財與之。若婚畢，財物入官。
If the parents die and there is an unmarried son, the remaining property is given to him. If the son is already married, the property is confiscated by the state.
其喪葬，兒女皆七日不食，剔髮而哭，僧尼、道士、親故皆來聚會，音樂送之。以五香木燒屍，收灰以金銀瓶盛，送于大水之內。貧者或用瓦，而以彩色畫之。亦有不焚，送屍山中，任野獸食者。
For funerals, sons and daughters refrain from eating for seven days and shave their heads while mourning. Monks, nuns, Daoist priests, and relatives all gather for the occasion, with music played to send off the deceased. The corpse is cremated using five fragrant woods, and the ashes are collected in containers of gold or silver and cast into a great river. Poorer families use ceramic urns, which are decorated with colorful designs. Some do not cremate the body, but instead take it to the mountains and leave it for wild animals to consume.
其國北多山阜，南有水澤，地氣尤熱，無霜雪，饒瘴癘毒蠚。土宜粱稻，少黍粟，果菜與日南、九真相類。
The northern part of this country has many hills and mounds; to the south, there are lakes and marshes. The climate is especially hot, with no frost or snow, and it abounds in miasmic vapors, poisonous illnesses, and venomous insects. The soil is suitable for growing millet and rice, but there is little barley or wheat. The fruits and vegetables are similar to those found in Rinan and Jiuzhen 九真.
異者有婆那娑樹，無花，葉似柿，實似冬瓜；菴羅樹，花葉似棗，實似李；毗野樹，花似木瓜，葉似杏，實似楮；婆田羅樹，花葉實並似棗而小異；歌畢他樹，花似林檎，葉似榆而厚大，實似李，其大如升。自餘多同九真。
Among the unusual plants is the bonaśa tree (婆那娑樹), which has no flowers; its leaves resemble those of the persimmon, and its fruit is like a winter melon. The āmra tree (菴羅樹) has flowers and leaves like those of the jujube, and fruit resembling a plum. The piye tree (毗野樹) has flowers like the papaya, leaves like an apricot, and fruit like mulberry. The pattra tree (婆田羅樹) has flowers, leaves, and fruit all similar to the jujube, with only slight differences. The kapitha tree (歌畢他樹) has flowers like the apple, leaves like the elm but thicker and larger, and fruit like a plum, as large as a sheng 升 [a measure of volume]. Aside from these, most other things are the same as in Jiuzhen.
海中有魚名建同，四足，無鱗，其鼻如象，吸水上噴，高五六十尺。有浮胡魚，其形似䱉，嘴如鸚鵡，有八足。多大魚，半身出水，望之如山。
In the sea, there is a fish called jiantong 建同, which has four legs, no scales, and a nose like an elephant; it draws in water and sprays it upwards to a height of 50 to 60 chi 尺. There is also the floating barbarian fish [fuhuyu 浮胡魚], which is shaped like a soft-shelled turtle, has a parrot-like beak, and eight legs. There are many large sea creatures, some with half their body above the water—seen from afar, they look like mountains.
每五六月中，毒氣流行，即以白猪、白牛、白羊於城西門外祠之。不然者，五穀不登，六畜多死，人眾疾疫。
Every year during the fifth and sixth lunar months, poisonous vapors spread. To counter this, they sacrifice a white pig, white ox, and white sheep at a shrine outside the city’s west gate. If this is not done, the grain harvest fails, livestock die in large numbers, and people fall ill with epidemics.
近都有陵伽鉢婆山，上有神祠，每以兵五千人守衞之。城東有神名婆多利，祭用人肉。其王年別殺人，以夜祀禱，亦有守衞者千人。
Near the capital is Mount Lingjiapotuo 陵伽鉢婆山, where there is a sacred shrine. It is guarded by 5,000 troops at all times. East of the city is a god called Potoli 婆多利, to whom human flesh is offered in sacrifice. Each year, the king kills a person as an offering, performing rituals and prayers at night. This shrine too is guarded by 1,000 soldiers.
其敬鬼如此。多奉佛法，尤信道士，佛及道士並立像於館。
Such is their reverence for spirits. They also widely honor Buddhism, and especially trust in Daoist priests. Both Buddhist monks and Daoists have statues erected in the guest halls.
大業十二年，遣使貢獻，帝禮之甚厚，其後亦絕。
In the 12th year of the Daye era [616 CE], the kingdom sent an envoy to offer tribute. The emperor received him with great ceremony and generosity. But afterward, relations ceased.
In 2013, William Aspell made a good annotated translation of the accounts of kingdoms in Southeast Asia in the History of the Sui as part of the Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series.
On the issue of curd, Aspell wrote in a footnote, “Milk products are not part of the traditional Khmer diet and this mention of milk curd may reflect the author’s observation of a highly Indianized element of Zhenla’s society.”
No, there are far too many elements in the above account that are South Asian (including probably the titles of the officials). The curd eating was not some affectation of a highly Indianized group of Cambodians. It was the normal diet of the South Asian ruling elite who were in control.
This is so obviously describing a South Asian ruling class. And there are clear connections with a place called Chitu, the description of which I will also argue describes a South Asian ruling elite.
I’ll write about that later.
Just a wild guess.. scholars call it “Chenla” because it looks a lot more “indigenous” 😉
That’s as good a guess as any. It could be. 🙂
I wrote this in another article, but this is a problematic passage.
You and Aspell seems to suggest that the Khmers are homogenized. At the present day, coconut milk is favored in some parts of Cambodia cuisine in the north and disliked in the south or vice versa (I forgot). So did hot spicy food. Their northeastern food from the East of the Mekong are different in flavor from the West of the Mekong. That’s not a suggestion that Zhenla or Funan are South Indian. Lots of redneck Americans loved Mexican food.
These milk curd-eating could have been a ritual affair where people gather around. I’ve been to Khmer houses in the Mekong Delta, the East Mekong, Isan, Dangrek and Cardimoum mountains and Phnom Penh. They all have their different regional flavors. Aspects that are common in one areas, are like strangers in another. Calling something, not a feature of Khmer cooking, is almost always erroneous and more like an academic absence of experience.
It is mistake to say that “The History of the Sui has a sizeable entry on Zhenla, and in reading it, it is SO OBVIOUS that it describes a South Asian ruling class.”.
Considering that the country and their neighbors are called “Indianized States of Southeast Asia”. Indian cultures are massively adopted in all form of life, and blended with indigenous Austro-asiatic. Nearly all the titles and names of kings in these Indianized Southeast Asian countries have rooted in Sanskrit and Pali words, even in the Muslim states. Does not meant the ruling families is Indian. Just like European monarch has Latin names and titles but they are not Italians.
>”Their diet mainly consists of curd [sulao 蘇酪], sugar, glutinous millet, and rice cakes. Before eating, they mix assorted meat stews with cakes and knead them together by hand before consuming them.”
THIS SOUND EXACTLY LIKE PRESENT-DAY CAMBODIA. In Kampong Thom, Siem Reap and all over the rural towns, they still making and selling these.
I can’t edit my last post.
Well, now we have to find a way to deal with this:
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-26799-3
That’s not exactly controversial, as the general founding myth of Cambodia, is that there foreign brahmin/priest/king married a local indigenous queen and inherited the throne. The myth or tropes is attested, in 3rd Chinese records, in 3rd or 4th century inscriptions, in Angkorean inscriptions in the Baksei Chamkrong, royal chronicles and commoner wedding ceremonies.
https://www.reddit.com/r/mythology/comments/1imnx81/marriage_to_a_naga_princess/
https://www.reddit.com/r/badhistory/comments/1jdl8r3/odd_compass_misleading_video_on_indianization_of/
These myths described the marriage between Indian and local customs, so it is not surprising to see Indian intermarriages. It is how the However, as many Indologogists and Mon-Khmer specialists described, the elite customs remained a mixture of Indic and local Khmer customs. Just like the barbarian kings adopted Christianity from the Romans.
Thank you, yes, I am of course aware of the Kaundinya/Preah Thong story. However, when it comes to Cambodian history, it seems to be that people assume that a South Asian presence was either very limited, and/or disappeared very quickly, and I wonder what the evidence for that is. You had Chinese in the Red River delta for 1,000 years. You had multiple polities at the other end of the Indochinese Peninsula at that time. How do we know that there weren’t South Asians communities and even people ruling over any of those polities? How, for instance, can we tell the ethnicity of someone from a Sanskrit title? Yes, there are inscriptions in Old Khmer as well, but diglossia in inscriptions can appear for multiple reasons: conquest, a function-based linguistic division between the sacred and the administrative, etc. How do we know that the diglossia was never because of conquest?
One early Chinese history records 500 “hu” (most likely South Asian) families at one of the trans-peninsular crossings in what is now Thailand in the early centuries AD that Funan conquered. Did all those families just stay over there? What evidence do we have that there was not a strong South Asian presence in Cambodia?
1). I don’t think South Asian presence are much debated. What is discussed here is whether the ruling family of Zhenla is Indian origin. According to Baphnom inscriptions, and synthesized with the Chinese sources in Sui Shu, the ruling family of Zhenla is related to the ruling family of Funan or at least four generations of kings see their continuity. The inscription is K.53 and was discussed in Peter Harris” The Empire Look South” page 116-117 regarding the “Lineage Linkage between Zhenla and Funan” preceded with his translation of the Book of Sui.
2). Regarding why the South Asian is considered to be limited, those came from the Chinese records and Indology.
2.1.) in the Liang Shu 7th century, after the foreigner Hun Dian married Liuye, they were succeeded by his son Hun Pankuang, who is succeeded by his middle-son, Panpan, but he reigned only three years, Fan Shiman, a general of the palace, was raised the ruler of Funan, and first great king. The successions of the Fan Shiman is followed by his sister’s son. This indicated similar practice of the Khmer Angkorian family. In any case, the dynasty of the foreign invader, who might be Indian, only lasted three generations even if he is considered the premier founding father.
2.2.) Deviations between the Khmer and Indian Hindu practices. Granted, most of these are better attested from the later Angkorian era, but evidently it existed prior. SEA always selective on foreign ideas they want to incorporate. This is known since before Coedes times.
3). I don’t think there are much evidences for or against, a ruling family being South Asian or any other ethnicity. But there are evidences that later Khmer ruling families and elites traced their lineage from these earlier kings or priest clans, and proudly proclaimed themselves as Khmers.
4). There is a youtube channel of Indian press called the Print. In a video entitled “It was a Tamil merchant guild that helped Rajendra Chola become a global conqueror” in the playlist “Thinking Medieval”. Evidently, Rajendra Chola (11th century) was the first Indian king who launched a military expedition oversea to Southeast Asia. Migration to SEA, was far common, and intermarriages between the elites would have occurred, but complete transplant in the ruling kingly class almost unheard of.
5). In another video of that playlist, ” Cambodians started worshiping Shiva through Hindu preachers, monks & market forces”, it described about a rough how Indianized process work. It was mostly priests coming around. There is a paper “THE PĀŚUPATA SECT IN ANCIENT CAMBODIA AND CHAMPA” available in Acadameia edu.
6). Sanskrit being the prestigious language is common across the whole Indianized world. How do we know that the diglossia was never because of conquest? Pali does not need conquest, and they occupied the same status today in Khmer-Thai-Laotian-Burmese-Mon manuscript. The Khmer alphabets are still continuously used by the Thai monks and priests to inscribe Pali, because supposedly it is more sacred. Religions had much stronger foothold than conquest.