For the past five years, I have been arguing that a placename that appears in Chinese historical sources, Sanfoqi, was a reference to Cambodia, rather than to a proposed polity on the island of Sumatra called “Srivijaya,” as virtually everyone else thinks.
While there is a lot of general information that only makes sense if we see Sanfoqi as Kambuja, there was a very specific set of historical events that took place in the lower Mekong region in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries that also only makes sense if we see Sanfoqi as Kambuja.
Beyond that, however, we also have to see that in this time period, the Khmer lost control of areas of the lower Mekong region, first to Javanese, and then to Chinese “adventurers/pirates,” some of whom appear to have allied with Javanese counterparts.
To see this, requires spending a lot of time going through the primary sources for that period, the most important of which are the Ming shilu and the Ryukuan Precious Documents, although these is important information in Cambodian and Siamese sources as well.
Further, one of the key places that we have to understand is a place called Old Harbor (also translated as Old Port). In what follows, I present the information in the Ming shilu about Old Harbor. Much of this has already been translated by Geoff Wade. In what follows, I make some changes to his translations, particularly by including the annotations to the text, which Wade generally omitted.
One interesting point that we see in these annotation is that “Java” (Zhuawa 爪哇) is often written as “Guawa” 瓜哇. However, in the sections on “Java” in the Ming shilu, it is consistently written as “Java.” This could just be a coincidence, or it could relate to a point that I have made before, which is that when Chinese encountered the same term in different contexts, they would often write it with different characters (as I previously showed with “Maharaja” and “Bendara”).
As I argued in the second article that I wrote on this topic, I think that when the Ming came to power, Javanese had conquered Sanfoqi’s main harbor (probably the area around what is now Ha Tien). In that sense, it was also “Java,” and yet it was not “Java.” Hence, that might explain why “Guawa” appears to have only been used in talking about the Javanese presence in the lower Mekong region.
That might be a stretch, but for anyone who reads through these materials in the Ming shilu and the Precious Documents, what I think becomes clear is that there is clearly a story here about Java, Siam, and Cambodia, and that it is very difficult to see Palembang here.
Finally, I discuss the information below in this article here.
MSL, Taizong, Yongle 3/1/21 (20 February 1405)
遣行人譚勝受千戶楊信等往舊港招撫迯民梁道明等舊港在南海與瓜哇 (瓜哇:抱本瓜作爪。) 隣道明廣東人挈家竄居于彼者累年廣東福建軍民從之者至数千人推道明為首指揮孫鉉嘗使海南諸番遇道明子二奴挾與俱來遂遣勝受等偕二奴賚勑招諭之
The Messenger Tan Sheng-shou, the Battalion Commander Yang Xin and others were sent to Old Harbor to bring the absconder Liang Dao-ming and others to negotiated pacification. Old Harbor is in the Southern Sea neighboring Guawa (Guawa: the Bao edition has “zhua” instead of “gua”). Dao-ming was originally from Guang-dong. He took his family and fled to live in this place, where he remained for many years. Several thousand military personnel and civilians from Guang-dong and Fu-jian followed him there and pushed Dao-ming forward as their leader. The Military Commander Sun Xuan had previously been sent as an envoy to the various fan/barbarians in Hainan [should be Nanhai, the Southern Sea] and while there had come across Dao-ming’s son Er-nu. He brought Er-nu back with him. Consequently, Sheng-shou and the others were sent to accompany Er-nu and to take Imperial orders with which to pacify and instruct them.
MSL Taizong, Yongle 3/9/1 (23 September 1405)
賜西洋瓜哇(瓜哇:抱本中本瓜作爪。)車里元江朝貢使臣及舊港等處頭目宴
A banquet was conferred upon the tribute envoys from the Western Ocean, Guawa (Guawa: The Bao and Zhong editions have “zhua” instead of “gua”), Che-li and Yuan-jiang and the chieftains from Old Harbor and other places.
MSL Taizong, Yongle 3/11/22 (13 December1405)
行人譚勝受等使舊港還以頭目梁道明鄭伯可等來朝貢馬方物 ( 貢馬方物:廣本抱本中本無馬字，是也。 ) 賜道明等襲衣及鈔百五十錠文綺十二表裏絹七十匹
The Messenger Tan Sheng-shou and others who had been sent as envoys to Old Harbor, returned with the chieftains Liang Dao-ming, Zheng Bo-ke and others, who came to Court to offer tribute of horses and local products. A total of 150 ding of paper money as well as 12 biao-li of patterned fine silks and 70 bolts of thin silks were conferred upon Dao-ming and the others.
MSL, Taizong, Yongle 4/7/29 (12 August 1406)
舊港頭目陳祖義 ( 陳祖義:廣本義誤羲。明史三佛齊傳作義，是也。) 遣子士良梁道明遣姪觀政及西干達哩耶回回哈直馬合默 (馬合默:廣本合作哈。) 等來朝賜鈔幣有差
[Chen] Shi-liang, who had been sent by his father Chen Zu-yi, a chieftain of Old Harbor, and [Liang] Guan-zheng, who had been sent by his uncle Liang Dao-ming, also a chieftain of Old Harbor, as well as the Muslim Ha-zhi Ma-he-mo (Mahemo: the Guang edition has “ha” instead of “he”) from Xi-gan-da-li-ye, came to Court. Paper money and silks, as appropriate, were conferred upon them.
MSL Taizong, Yongle 5/9/2 (2 October 1407)
壬子太監鄭和使西洋諸國還械至海賊陳祖義等初和至舊港遇祖義等遣人招諭之祖義降詐降 (祖義降詐降:廣本抱本降詐降作等詐降，是也。) 而潛謀要卻官軍 (要卻官軍:舊校改卻作刼。) 和等覺之整兵隄備祖義率眾來刼和出兵與戰 (和出兵與戰:廣本出作率。) 祖義大敗殺賊黨五千餘人 ( 殺賊黨五千餘人:廣本千作十。) 燒賊船十艘獲其七艘及偽銅印二顆生擒祖義等三人既至京師命悉斬之
The Eunuch Director Zheng He who had been sent to the various countries of the Western Ocean, returned, bringing the pirate Chen Zu-yi and others in fetters. Previously, when he had arrived at Old Harbor, he came across Zu-yi and so on and sent people to bring them to negotiated pacification. Zu-yi and the others feigned surrender (Zuyi feigned surrender: the “surrender feigned” and “surrender made” in the Guang and Bao editions should be “feigned surrender”) but secretly plotted to repel the Imperial army (repel the Imperial army: in the old collated edition, “repel” 卻 was written as “pillage” 刼). He and the others found out about this and, marshalling the troops, prepared defences. When the forces led by Zu-yi came to pillage, He sent his troops out to do battle (He sent his troops out to do battle: the Guang edition has “went out as a leader”). Zu-yi suffered a great defeat. Over 5,000 of the bandit gang were killed (over 5,000 of the bandit gang were killed: the Guang edition has 50), while ten of the bandit ships were burnt and seven captured. Further, two false bronze seals were seized and three prisoners, including Zu-yi, were taken alive. When they arrived at the capital, it was ordered that all the prisoners be beheaded.
MSL, Taizong, Yongle 5/9/8 (8 October 1407)
舊港頭目施進卿遣壻丘彥誠朝貢設舊港宣慰使司命進卿為宣慰使賜印誥冠帶文綺紗羅
Qiu Yan-cheng who had been sent by his father-in-law Shi Jin-qing, the chieftain of Old Harbor, came to Court and offered tribute. The Old Harbor Pacification Commission was established and it was ordered that Jin-qing be appointed as the pacification commissioner. A seal, a title patent, headwear and a belt, patterned fine silks and silk gauzes were conferred upon him.
MSL Taizong, Yongle 5/9/29 (29 October 1407)
卯賞使西洋官軍舊港擒賊有功者指揮鈔一百錠綵幣四表裏千戶鈔八十錠綵幣三表裏百戶所鎮撫鈔六十錠綵幣二表裏醫士番火長鈔五十錠綵幣一表裏校尉鈔五十錠綿布三疋旗軍通事軍伴以下鈔布有差
The Imperial army personnel sent to the Western Ocean and who realized achievements in the capture of the bandits at Old Harbor, were rewarded. The guard commanders were given 100 ding of paper money and four biao-li of variegated silks. The battalion commanders were given 80 ding of paper money and three biao-li of variegated silks, while the company commanders and judges were given 60 ding of paper money and two biao-li of variegated silks. The doctors and fan navigators were given 50 ding of paper money and three bolts of embroidered cloth. The lesser commanders (校尉) were given 50 ding of paper money and three bolts of embroidered cloth. The platoon commanders, interpreters, military attendants and those of lower rank were given paper money and cloth as appropriate.
MSL Taizong, Yongle 11/9/7 (1 October 1413)
癸未爪哇國王西都馬板 (瓜哇國王西都馬板:抱本瓜作爪。) 舊校改王西作西王。遣使亞烈沙麻耶等貢方物既還敕諭都馬板曰前內官吳賓等還言王恭事朝廷禮待敕使有加無替比聞王以滿剌加國索舊港之地而懷疑懼朕推誠待人若果許之必有敕諭王既無朝廷敕書王何疑焉下人浮言慎勿聽之今賜王文綺紗羅至可領也
The envoy Ya-lie [Arya] Sha-ma-ye and others who had been sent by Xi-du-ma-ban, of the country of Java (Guawa king Xidumaban: the Bao edition has “zhua” instead of “gua”), offered tribute of local products. When they were about to depart, they were given Imperial orders of instruction for Du-ma-ban as follows: “Previously, when the eunuch Wu Bin and so on returned, they said that you, king, served the Court respectfully, that you had treated the envoys carrying the Imperial orders with due ceremony and that your efforts in these respects were continually increasing. Recently, it has been heard that the king is worried and concerned as the country of Melaka has asked for the territory of Old Harbor. I promote sincerity in my treatment of people. If this had been allowed, I would have sent orders of instruction to you. Given that there have been no orders from the Court, why are you worried? Be careful not to listen to the frivolous words of lesser men. Now I am conferring upon you patterned fine silks and silk gauzes. These are for your receipt.”
[Note: The text has “king of Java, Xidumaban” 爪哇國王西都馬板. “Xi” here means west, and in a section of the Ming shilu devoted to “collation and emendation notes” (校勘記), it says that “in an earlier collation of the text, the王西 was changed to 西王” (舊校改王西作西王), which would produce “western king.” Wade went ahead and changed this in his translation, but I have left it as it appears in the original.]
MSL Taizong, Yongle 14/11/1 (19 November 1416)
古里爪哇 (瓜哇:抱本瓜作爪，下同。) 滿剌加占城蘇門答剌南巫里沙里灣泥彭享 (彭享:舊校改享作亨。) 錫蘭山木骨都東留山木骨都束留山:舊校改束留作束溜。喃渤利不剌哇阿丹麻林剌撒忽魯謨斯柯枝諸國及舊港宣慰司各遣使貢馬及犀象方物
The envoys sent by the various fan/barbarian countries of Calicut, Java (Guawa: the Bao edition has “zhua” instead of “gua.” Below is the same.), Melaka, Champa, Samudera, Nan-wu-li, Sha-li-wan-ni, Pengxiang [Pahang] (Pengxiang: the old collated edition has “heng” 亨 instead of “xiang” 享), Sri Lanka, Mogadishu, Liu-shan, Nan-bo-li, Bu-la-wa, Aden, Ma-lin, La-sa, Hormuz, Cochin and the Old Harbor Pacification Commission offered tribute of horses, rhinoceros, elephants and other local products.
MSL Taizong, Yongle 14/11/9 (27 November 1416) Wade has the 8th/26 Nov
賜滿剌加古里爪哇占城錫蘭山骨都來溜山 (骨都來溜山:廣本抱本骨上有木字，來作束，是也。) 喃渤利不剌哇阿母蘇門答剌麻林剌撒忽魯謨斯柯枝南巫里沙里灣泥彭亨諸國及舊港宣慰司使臣宴
A banquet was conferred upon the envoys sent by the various countries of Melaka, Calicut, Java, Champa, Sri Lanka,Gudulai [Mogadishu], Liu-shan (Gudulai, Liushan: In the Guang and Bao editions, the mu radical 木 is on top of gu, and “lai” is “shu.” That is correct.), Nan-bo-li, Bu-la-wa, Aden, Samudera, Ma-lin, La-sa, Hormuz, Cochin, Nan-wu-li, Sha-li-wan-ni and Pahang, and the Old Harbor Pacification Commission.
MSL Taizong, Yongle 14/12/10 (31 December 1416) [Not translated by Wade, as far as I can tell]
哇阿丹蘇門答剌麻林剌撒忽魯謨斯柯枝南巫里沙里灣泥彭亨諸國及舊港 宣慰使司臣 (舊港宣慰使司臣:舊校改使司為司使。) 辭還悉賜文綺襲衣遣中官鄭和等賫敕及錦綺紗羅綵絹等物偕往賜各國王仍賜柯枝國王可亦里印誥並封其國中之山為鎮國山
The countries of Aden, Samudera, Ma-lin, La-sa, Hormuz, Cochin, Nan-wu-li, Sha-li-wan-ni, Pahang, and others, together with the officials of the Old Harbor Pacification Commission (officials of the Old Harbor Pacification Commission: in the old collated edition 使司 “commission” was corrected to 司使 “commissioner”), took leave and returned. All were granted robes of patterned silks.
The eunuch Zheng He and others were dispatched, carrying imperial edicts along with brocades, fine silks, gauzes, and colored satins to bestow upon the kings of each country. In addition, the King of Cochin, Keyili, was granted a seal patent, and one mountain within his country was invested with the name “Zhenguo Mountain” [Mountain That Protects the State].
MSL Taizong, Yongle 22/1/27 (20 February 2024) [Not translated by Wade, as far as I can tell]
舊港故宣慰使施進卿之子濟孫遣使丘彥成請襲父職并言舊印為火所燬 上命濟孫襲宣慰使賜紗帽及花金帶 (紗帽及花金帶:廣本及作鈒，是也。) 金織文綺襲衣印銀 (印銀:舊校改作銀印。) 令中官鄭和賫往給之
Old Harbor’s Pacification Commissioner, Shi Jinqing, having died, his son Ji Sun sent an envoy, Qiu Yancheng, to request succession to his father’s office, also reporting that the old seal had been destroyed in a fire.
The emperor ordered that Ji Sun should inherit the post of Pacification Commissioner, and bestowed upon him a gauze cap and a patterned gold belt (a gauze cap and a patterned gold belt: in the Guang edition, 及 [and] is written as 鈒 [spear]. This is correct.), as well as gold-woven brocade robes. A seal silver (seal silver: in the old collation, “seal siver” was changed to “silver seal”) was also to be granted.
The eunuch Zheng He was ordered to deliver these to him.
MSL, Renzong, Hongxi 1/Intercalary 7/9 (August 22, 1425)
爪哇國舊港宣慰司遣正副使亞烈張佛那等 (張佛那等:抱本禮本那下有馬字，按卷六第九頁廣本亦有馬字。) 奉表貢金銀香象牙方物
The chief envoy Ya-lie [Arya] Zhang Fo-na-ma, the deputy envoy and others who had been sent by the Kingdom of Java’s Old Harbor Pacification Commission, presented a memorial and offered tribute of gold, silver, aromatics, elephant tusks and other local products.
MSL, Renzong, Hongxi 1/Intercalary 7/19 (September 1, 1425)
丙辰賜爪哇國舊港宣慰使司臣 (使司臣:廣本改作司使臣。其鉤乙符號，影印本未印出。) 亞烈張佛那馬等五十二人鈔紵絲紗羅綵絹有差仍賜張佛那馬及頭目總管八致陳致堅等七人冠帶
Paper money, ramie-silk, silk gauzes and variegated thin silks, as appropriate, were conferred upon Ya-lie Zhang Fo-na-ma, the envoy from the Kingdom of Java’s Old Habor Pacification Commission, and others, a total of 52 persons. In addition, headwear and belts were conferred upon seven persons, including Zhang Fo-na-ma and the chieftain commander (頭目總管) Ba-zhi [Patih] Chen Zhi-jian.
MSL, Renzong, Hongxi 1/8/6 (17 September 1425) [Not translated by Wade, as far as I can tell]
給爪哇舊港宣慰使司 (宣慰使司:北大本抱本使司作司使。) 印付其使臣張佛那馬还盖舊印為所火燬 (為所火燬:北大本抱本所火作火所，是也。) 也
A seal was issued to Java’s Old Harbor Pacification Commission (Pacification Commission: in the Beida and Baoben editions, “commission” 使司 is written as “commissioner” 司使. That is correct.). It was entrusted to the envoy Zhang Fona-ma to take back, since the former seal had been such fire destroyed (such fire destroyed: in the Beida and Baoben editions, “such fire” 所火 is written as “by fire” 火所. That is correct.).
MSL, Mingzong 明宣, Xuande 宣德 Xuande 5/6/9 (June 29, 1430)
Xuande 5/6/9 (29 June 1430)
戊寅遣太監鄭和等賫詔往諭諸番國詔曰朕恭膺 天命祗嗣 太祖高皇帝 太宗文皇帝 仁宗昭皇帝大統君臨萬邦體 祖宗之至仁普輯寧于庶類已大赦天下紀元宣德咸與維新尔諸番國遠處海外未有聞知茲特遣太監鄭和王景弘等賫詔往諭其各敬順 天道撫輯人民以共享太平之福凡所厯忽魯磨斯 (忽魯磨斯:廣本抱本磨作謨，是也。) 錫蘭山古里滿剌加柯枝卜剌哇木骨都束喃渤利蘇門答剌剌撒溜山阿魯甘巴里阿丹佐法兒竹步加異勒等二十國及舊港宣慰司其君長皆賜綵幣有差
The Eunuch Director Zheng He and others were sent with an Imperial proclamation to go and instruct the various fan countries. The proclamation read: “I have respectfully taken on the mandate of Heaven and reverently inherited the Great Rule from the Tai-zu Gao Emperor, the Tai-zong Wen Emperor and the Ren-zong Zhao Emperor. I rule over the ten thousand states, manifest the supreme benevolence of my ancestors and spread peace to all things. I have already issued a general amnesty to all under Heaven and declared the commencement of the Xuan-de reign. All has begun anew. You, the various fan countries far across the ocean, will not yet have heard. Now I am especially sending the Eunuch Directors Zheng He and Wang Jing-hong carrying this proclamation with which to instruct you. You must all respect and accord with the Way of Heaven, care for your people and keep them in peace. Thus will you all enjoy the prosperity of Great Peace.” Variegated silks, as appropriate, were to be conferred upon the rulers or chiefs of all 20 countries through which the eunuchs were to pass, including Hulumosi [Hormuz] (Hulumosi: in the Guang and Bao editions, “mo” 磨 is “mo” 謨. That is correct.), Sri Lanka, Calicut, Melaka, Cochin, Bu-la-wa, Mogadishu, Nan-bo-li, Samudera, La-sa, Liu-shan, Aru, Gan-ba-li, Aden, Zuo-fa-er, Zhu-bu, Jia-yi-le and so on, as well as the Old Harbor Pacification Commission.
You are guessing in Mekong … yet Palembang already have Javanese tradition within their Malayu culture.
Thank you for the comment, but no, I’m not guessing anything. I have come to my conclusions based on a thorough examination and analysis of the sources above, and the sources here:
https://leminhkhaiblog.com/sanfoqi-old-harbor-and-the-baolin-polity-in-the-rekidai-hoan/
And the sources here:
https://leminhkhaiblog.com/sanfoqi-in-the-ming-shilu/
And the information here:
https://leminhkhaiblog.com/chinese-sources-on-southeast-asian-history/
Which I discuss in more detail here:
https://leminhkhaiblog.com/the-history-of-cambodia-you-never-knew-about/
As well as the additional sources and information that I discuss here:
https://www.academia.edu/83822426/Rescuing_History_from_Srivijaya_The_Fall_of_Angkor_in_the_Ming_Shilu_Part_1_
And here:
https://www.academia.edu/127729148/Rescuing_History_from_Srivijaya_The_Fall_of_Angkor_in_the_Ming_Shilu_Part_2_
And here:
https://www.academia.edu/102690878/Revisiting_the_Chinese_Sources_on_Early_Southeast_Asian_History
And also based on Cambodian and Siamese sources that I will publish about soon.
Further, I should note that the conclusions I have come to are not a “house of cards” where if one detail is wrong, the house collapses. Instead, I have checked and cross-checked to the point that I am convinced that I have built a solid structure. If some details are wrong, the structure will still keep standing.
This is why I have shared so much information about this topic, because I encourage everyone to examine all the materials that I have examined, to understand the structure of knowledge that I see, and if they think it’s wrong, then they can show me by building another structure which takes all of the information above and in the links into account.